Religion

Evidence of Cultural Borrowing in the Bible Beyond the Flood Story

The Bible, while a unique and foundational text for Judaism and Christianity, was composed over many centuries in a region that was a crossroads of ancient civilizations. As such, it reflects interactions with surrounding cultures, including Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Canaanite, and Persian societies. Besides the flood narrative, there is substantial evidence that the Bible incorporates elements from these cultures. Here are some notable examples:

1. Creation Narratives

Enuma Elish and Genesis

• Similarity: The Babylonian creation epic Enuma Elish shares parallels with the Genesis creation account.
• Details:
• Enuma Elish describes how the god Marduk creates the world by defeating the chaos monster Tiamat and forming the heavens and earth from her divided body.
• In Genesis, God brings order to primordial chaos, separating light from darkness and waters above from waters below.
• Interpretation: The Genesis creation story may have been influenced by Mesopotamian myths, reinterpreting them within a monotheistic framework that emphasizes a single, sovereign God.

2. Law Codes

Code of Hammurabi and Mosaic Law

• Similarity: The Mosaic Law in the Torah and the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi contain comparable legal principles.
• Examples:
• Lex Talionis: The principle of "an eye for an eye" appears in both (Exodus 21:23–25; Hammurabi §§196–201).
• Property and Family Laws: Regulations concerning theft, adultery, and slavery have parallels.
• Interpretation: The Israelites likely adapted existing legal traditions from Mesopotamia, contextualizing them within their covenant relationship with Yahweh.

3. Wisdom Literature

Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope and Book of Proverbs

• Similarity: The Instruction of Amenemope, an Egyptian wisdom text dated between the 13th and 10th centuries BCE, closely parallels portions of the Book of Proverbs.
• Examples:
• Both texts advise against moving ancient boundary stones (Proverbs 22:28; Amenemope Chapter VI).
• Emphasis on humility, restraint in speech, and ethical living.
• Interpretation: Hebrew wisdom literature may have been influenced by Egyptian teachings, integrating them into a Yahwistic worldview.

4. The Birth Narrative of Moses and the Legend of Sargon

Sargon of Akkad and Moses

• Similarity: The story of Moses' birth shares elements with the legend of Sargon of Akkad, a Mesopotamian ruler from the 24th century BCE.
• Details:
• Sargon was said to have been placed in a reed basket sealed with bitumen and set adrift in a river, later to be found and raised by a royal figure.
• Moses was placed in an ark of bulrushes daubed with pitch and set among the reeds of the Nile, where Pharaoh's daughter discovered and adopted him (Exodus 2:1–10).
• Interpretation: This motif of the exposed infant who rises to greatness may have been a common Near Eastern literary theme adopted into the Hebrew narrative.

5. Psalms and Hymns

Ugaritic Texts and Biblical Psalms

• Similarity: The Psalms contain language and themes similar to Ugaritic poetry from ancient Canaan.
• Examples:
• References to God riding upon the clouds (Psalm 68:4) resemble descriptions of the Canaanite deity Baal.
• The use of divine titles like "Most High" (Elyon) and "Almighty" (Shaddai).
• Interpretation: Hebrew poets may have incorporated familiar Canaanite literary styles and motifs, reorienting them to worship Yahweh exclusively.

6. The Book of Job and Mesopotamian Wisdom Texts

Ludlul-Bel-Nimeqi and the Poem of the Righteous Sufferer

• Similarity: The Book of Job shares themes with Mesopotamian texts that explore the suffering of a righteous individual.
• Details:
• Both Job and the protagonists of these texts endure inexplicable suffering despite their piety.
• They question the justice of the divine and seek understanding.
• Interpretation: The exploration of theodicy in Job may reflect engagement with broader ancient Near Eastern discussions on divine justice.

7. Apocalyptic Themes and Persian Influence

Zoroastrianism and Jewish Eschatology

• Similarity: Concepts such as cosmic dualism, resurrection, and final judgment in Jewish apocalyptic literature resemble Zoroastrian beliefs.
• Details:
• Zoroastrianism, the religion of the Persian Empire, taught about the ongoing battle between good and evil, the resurrection of the dead, and a final judgment.
• Books like Daniel and later Jewish texts introduce these themes (Daniel 12:2).
• Interpretation: Exposure to Persian culture during and after the Babylonian Exile may have influenced Jewish theological development.

8. Angelology and Demonology

Development of Supernatural Hierarchies

• Similarity: The complex hierarchies of angels and demons in later Jewish thought show parallels with other cultures' celestial beings.
• Details:
• The figure of Satan evolves from a member of God's court (as in Job) to a more adversarial role, possibly influenced by Persian dualism.
• Names of angels like Gabriel and Michael appear during or after the Exile (Daniel 8:16; 10:13).
• Interpretation: Interactions with other cultures may have contributed to the elaboration of Jewish beliefs about angels and demons.

9. Covenant Language and Treaty Formulas

Hittite Suzerainty Treaties and Biblical Covenants

• Similarity: The structure of covenants in the Hebrew Bible mirrors the format of Hittite suzerainty treaties from the second millennium BCE.
• Details:
• Components like a preamble, historical prologue, stipulations, blessings and curses, and witnesses are common to both.
• Deuteronomy, in particular, reflects this treaty structure.
• Interpretation: The Israelites may have utilized familiar diplomatic conventions to express their relationship with God as a covenant.

10. Proverbs and International Wisdom

Cross-Cultural Wisdom Sayings

• Similarity: Many proverbs in the Bible reflect universal wisdom found across the ancient Near East.
• Examples:
• Themes like hard work leading to prosperity, the dangers of excessive alcohol, and the value of wise counsel are common.
• Interpretation: The wisdom tradition in Israel was part of a broader intellectual culture that transcended national boundaries.

11. Rituals and Festivals

Agricultural Practices and Religious Celebrations

• Similarity: Some Israelite festivals correspond with agricultural cycles and festivals in neighboring cultures.
• Details:
• The Festival of Weeks (Shavuot) and the Canaanite harvest festivals.
• Rituals involving firstfruits and harvest offerings.
• Interpretation: While uniquely interpreted within Israelite religion, these festivals may have origins in shared regional practices.

12. Architectural Influences

Temple Design and Construction

• Similarity: The design of Solomon's Temple shows similarities to Phoenician and other Near Eastern temple architecture.
• Details:
• Use of cedar wood from Lebanon, collaboration with King Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 5).
• Structural features like the tripartite layout (vestibule, main hall, inner sanctuary).
• Interpretation: Architectural styles and building techniques were likely adopted from or influenced by neighboring cultures.

Conclusion

The Bible reflects a rich tapestry of cultural interactions, borrowing, and adaptations from surrounding civilizations. These influences are evident in narratives, laws, wisdom literature, theological concepts, and ritual practices. The biblical authors engaged with the ideas of their time, reinterpreting and transforming them within the context of their faith in Yahweh. Recognizing these connections enhances our understanding of the Bible as a product of its historical and cultural environment, while also highlighting the distinctive perspectives it brings to enduring human questions.

References

Walton, J. H. (2006). Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament. Baker Academic.

Sparks, K. L. (2005). Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible. Hendrickson Publishers.

Pritchard, J. B. (Ed.). (2011). The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton University Press.

Hallo, W. W., & Younger, K. L. (Eds.). (1997). The Context of Scripture. Brill.

Day, J. (2000). Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. Sheffield Academic Press.

Murphy, R. E. (2002). The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature. Eerdmans.

Collins, J. J. (1998). The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature. Eerdmans.

Levinson, B. M. (1997). Deuteronomy and the Hermeneutics of Legal Innovation. Oxford University Press.

Finkel, I. (2014). The Ark Before Noah: Decoding the Story of the Flood. Hodder & Stoughton.

Kitchen, K. A. (2003). On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Eerdmans.